How Is Cast Iron Used in Architecture

Cast-iron architecture was a popular type of building design used throughout the world in the mid-1800s. Its popularity was due, in part, to its efficiency and cost-effectiveness — a regal exterior facade could be mass-produced inexpensively with cast iron. Entire structures could be prefabricated and shipped around the world as portable iron houses. Ornate facades could be imitated from historic buildings and then hung on the steel-framed tall buildings   — the new architecture being built in the late 19th century. Examples of cast iron architecture can be found in both commercial buildings and private residences. Preservation of this architectural detail has been addressed in Preservation Brief 27, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior — The Maintenance and Repair of Architectural Cast Iron by John G. Waite, AIA. What Is the Difference Between Cast Iron and Wrought Iron? Iron is a soft, natural element in our environment. Elements like carbon can be added to iron to create other compounds, including steel. The properties and uses of iron change as different element proportions are combined with various heat intensities — the two key components are mixture proportions and how hot you can get a furnace. Wrought iron has a low carbon content, which makes it pliable when heated in a forge — it is easily wrought or worked on by a hammer to shape it. Wrought iron fencing was popular in the mid-1800s as it is today. The innovative Spanish architect Antoni Gaudà ­ used decorative wrought iron in and on many of his buildings. A type of wrought iron called puddled iron was used to construct the Eiffel Tower. Cast iron, on the other hand, has a higher carbon content, which allows it to liquify at high temperatures. The liquid iron can be cast or poured into prefabricated molds. When the cast iron is cooled, it hardens. The mold is removed, and the cast iron has taken the shape of the mold. Molds can be reused, so cast-iron building modules can be mass produced, unlike hammered wrought iron. In the Victorian Era, highly elaborate cast-iron garden fountains became affordable for even a rural towns public space. In the U.S., the fountain designed by  Frederic Auguste Bartholdi may be the most famous — in Washington, D.C. its known as Bartholdis Fountain. Why Was Cast Iron Used in Architecture? Cast iron was used in both commercial buildings and private residences for many reasons. First, it was an inexpensive means to reproduce ornate facades, such as Gothic, Classical, and Italianate, which became the most popular designs imitated. The grand architecture, symbolic of prosperity, became affordable when mass-produced. Cast iron molds could be reused, allowing for the development of architectural catalogs of module patterns that could be optioned to prospective clients — catalogs of cast-iron facades were as common as catalogs of pattern house kits. Like mass-produced automobiles, cast-iron facades would have parts to easily repair broken or weathered components, if the mold still existed. Second, like other products mass produced, elaborate designs could be assembled rapidly on a construction site. Better yet, entire buildings could be constructed in one place and shipped all over the world - prefabrication enabled portability. Lastly, the use of cast iron was a natural extension of the Industrial Revolution. The use of steel frames in commercial buidlings allowed a more open floor plan design, with space to accommodate larger windows suitable for commerce. The cast-iron facades were really like icing on a cake. That icing, however, was also thought to be fireproof — a new type of building construction to address the new fire regulations after devastating fires like the Great Chicago fire of 1871. Who Is Known for Working in Cast Iron? The history of cast irons use in America begins in the British Isles. Abraham Darby (1678-1717) is said to be the first to develop a new furnace in Britains Severn Valley that allowed his grandson, Abraham Darby III, to build the first iron bridge in 1779. Sir William Fairbairn (1789-1874), a Scottish engineer, is thought to be the first to prefabricate a flour mill in iron and ship it to Turkey around 1840. Sir Joseph Paxton (1803–1865), an English landscaper, designed the Crystal Palace in cast iron, wrought iron, and glass for the Great World Exhibition of 1851. In the United States, James Bogardus (1800-1874) is the self-described originator and patent-holder for cast-iron buildings, including 85 Leonard Street and 254 Canal Street both in New York City. Daniel D. Badger (1806–1884) was the marketing  entrepreneur.  Badgers Illustrated Catalogue of Cast-Iron Architecture, 1865, is available as a 1982 Dover Publication, and a public domain version can be found online at the Internet Library. Badgers Architectural Iron Works company is responsible for many portable iron buildings and lower Manhattan facades, including the E.V. Haughwout Building. What Others Say About Cast-Iron Architecture: Everyone is not a fan of cast iron. Perhaps its been overused, or it is emblematic of a mechanized culture. Heres what others have said: But I believe no cause to have been more active in the degradation of our natural feeling for beauty, than the constant use of cast iron ornaments....I feel very strongly that there is no hope of the progress of the arts of any nation which indulges in these vulgar and cheap substitutes for real decoration. —   John Ruskin, 1849 The spread of prefabricated iron fronts imitating masonry buildings quickly aroused criticism in the architectural profession. Architectural journals condemned the practice, and various debates were held on the subject, including one sponsored by the recently founded American Institute of Architects. — Landmarks Preservation Commission Report, 1985 [The Haughwout Building,] a single pattern of classical elements, repeated over five floors, yields a facade of extraordinary richness and harmony...[The architect, J.P. Gaynor] invented nothing. It is all in how he put the pieces together...like a good plaid....A building lost is never regained. — Paul Goldberger, 2009 Sources John Ruskin, The Seven Lamps of Architecture, 1849, pp. 58–59Gale Harris, Landmarks Preservation Commission Report, p. 6, March 12, 1985, PDF at http://www.neighborhoodpreservationcenter.org/db/bb_files/CS051.pdf [accessed April 25, 2018]Paul Goldberger, Why Architecture Matters, 2009, pp. 101, 102, 210.

Essay in Todays Educational System

An ESSAY is a kind of written work that can not be taken out of todays education system. During last decades writing an essay became one of the most important parts of educating young people and adults. The reason for this major significance of the essay is that it provides a number of positive effects for both professors and students: Students are able to express their thoughts clearly with no rush and pressure. Students are able to show their knowledge and writing skills simultaneously. Essay writing gives students the ability to show creativity and rationality. Teachers and professors are able to evaluate students work according to specific criteria and requirements. Essays give teachers a chance to get to know students and their knowledge better. Essay writing develops analytical, logical, creative, critical and other skills of students. There are yet no alternatives for students that could be as effective as writing essays. It is time saving for students and teachers and makes the studying process a lot more convenient unlike oral peer-to-peer conversations. Essay writing is inalienable part of education in any human society and it will remain so for a long time because of its effectiveness in evaluation of the abilities and intellect of students.

Native Americans By James Axtell - 990 Words

â€Å"The Indian presence precipitated the formation of an American identity† (Axtell 992). Ostracized by numerous citizens of the United States today, this quote epitomizes Axtell’s beliefs of the Indians contributing to our society. Unfortunately, Native Americans’ roles in history are often categorized as insignificant or trivial, when in actuality the Indians contributed greatly to Colonial America, in ways the ordinary person would have never deliberated. James Axtell discusses these ways, as well as what Colonial America may have looked like without the Indians’ presence. Throughout his article, his thesis stands clear by his persistence of alteration the Native Americans had on our nation. James Axtell’s bias delightfully enhances his thesis, he provides a copious amount of evidence establishing how Native Americans contributed critically to the Colonial culture, and he considers America as exceptional – largely due to the Native Ameri cans. As all authors are undeniably guilty of, James Axtell has a bias, and not one shamefully swept underneath the rug. The enlightening article Axtell has published remains not only as informational; it stands convicting in a sense. Unfortunately, the reader may find themselves lumped into the assemblage of Americans that regard the Native Americans as â€Å"pathetic footnotes to the main course of American History† (Axtell 981). Establishing his thesis, Axtell offers plentiful examples of how Native Americans contributed to Colonial America,Show MoreRelatedNative Americans And American History Essay969 Words   |  4 PagesNative Americans, or Indians, as they were mistakenly called, have been the â€Å"pathetic footnotes to the main course of American history† (Axtell 981). But James Axtell, the author of Colonial America without the Indians: Counterfactual Reflections, would beg to differ. He says that instead, Indians played a key role in making America great. 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The trials and tribulations they went throughRead More The Suppression of the Indian Religion and Culture in the New World2976 Words   |  12 Pagescontinent, there were native peoples living in communion with their environment and, very often, each other. Their religious practices were interwoven with their daily lives and religion held a prominent, significant place within their culture. The intrusion by Europeans into this peaceful world had profound effects on the Indians, especially their religious practices. What had been a peaceful, harmonic lifestyle changed dramatically that fall of 1492. The Europeans entered the native peoples worldRead MoreRole Of The Native American Indians2201 Words   |  9 Pages Seven Years War in North America: The Role of the Native American Indians Native American Indians played a larger role in the Seven Years War than they tend to be credited in many history books. While it cannot be denied that the Native Americans certainly were used as â€Å"pawns† of the European soldiers, this essential group was also motivated on its own to fight. However, there is little doubt that the Native Americans would not have had involvement in the Seven Years War withoutRead MoreThe Role Of The Native American Indians2082 Words   |  9 Pages2014 Seven Years War in North America: The Role of the Native American Indians Native American Indians played a larger role in the Seven Years War than they tend to be credited in many history books. While it cannot be denied that the Native Americans certainly were used as â€Å"pawns† of the European soldiers, this essential group was also motivated on its own to fight. However, there is little doubt that the Native Americans would not have had involvement in the Seven Years War without

Kids Vs Kids Essay Example For Students

Kids Vs Kids Essay KIDS VS. KIDSThe average child witnesses eight thousand murders and one hundred thousand acts of violence by the time he or she finishes elementary school. In the past fifteen years school violence has become a clear but present danger. It used to be children were involved in fistfights, or other types of squabbles. They may have received a black eye or bloody nose. Now they are armed with not fists but sawed off shotguns and malice. This is a serious issue that needs to be observed and resolved. These need to be taken in to consideration, home environment, society, and school policy. These are the key issues that are causing children to act out so violently. In the early eighties we were not having the problems with school shootings that are happening now. Home environment is the big factor thats been children are for most of their life; the influences that come from here are powerful. Hopefully parents are teaching their children to be good people, to have compassion for others, but in some cases this is not happening. Society has evolved in the past fifteen years. Things are a little different. More mothers were at home raising their children and not out in the workplace. The Internet was not available to the population until 1989-1990. With out this being monitored for students it could be very harmful. The Internet is full of wonderful information, but also potentially dangerous material. School policy was d ifferent because they were not having such violent problems. There were problems in schools in the eighties but not so many, so often. From nineteen eighty eight to nineteen ninety-two the homicide rate increased by fifty percent, assault by forty eight percent, robbery, forty nine percent and rape fifteen percent. At these rapid increasements they crept into schools with a bang. The average home in the nineties is, both parents working forty hours a week, tired and might not be so observant to what their children are doing and learning. The home environment is so important and vital to the solving of this problem. The Internet is available at home, or in most libraries. This needs to monitored especially for younger users. In hope to help eliminate the shootings most schools in the U.S. have adopted the zero tolerance policy. The zero tolerance policy is helpful in keeping order and does not tolerate much else. The school will not hesitate to expel, suspend, or other serious punish ment that the particular school has for specific rule, if broken. Schools are indeed different today then they were in nineteen eighty. Children need to learn how to solve their problems peacefully because this violence will not work to their advantage. It will only make their life more complicated. This generation has been brought up on video games and television, but teachers must still strive to make learning fun and a good experience. Americans need to think of ways to let their child have a little freedom but also keep tabs on what they are doing good and bad, this is what will help schools.